Animals in pre-modern European understandings signified potent natural magics. Long traditions of reading passions across species barriers – from the choleric nature of the wolf to the melancholy of the cat –made proverbs and parables out of the actions and interactions of the various beasts of the field. The animals had lessons to teach us.
These lessons were heeded in various ways by the traditional folk magics of the various wise-women, village wizards, service magicians, and local spspirit workers.